F. H. Richardson's bluebook of projection (1935)

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LENSES AND MIRRORS 109 any other point, even though it is an adjoining one. Each point therefore refracts an incident light ray in a different direction than do all other points. (42) In passing through the lens surface upon entering, the light ray receives its initial refraction. The amount of refraction depends upon the angle of incidence and the refractive index of the glass. If the glass Fig. 32. — Left, plano-convex ; center, bi-convex ; right, meniscus lens. is homogeneous (of even density throughout) the light will pass through it in perfectly straight lines until the opposite surface of the lens is reached. If the light reaches the second surface at an angle (as it must unless it was incident upon the first surface at the axis of the lens, and perpendicular to the surface at that point) the ray will again be refracted in passing from the lens. (43) From this we perceive that if a lens is homogeneous its action upon light may be ascribed to the following elements: (a) the refractive index (density) of the glass; (b) the angle at which the lens surface is met at both of its surfaces; (c) the relative density of the medium through which the light passes before it reaches lens and (d) the lens itself. (44) If a light ray meets a lens surface exactly at