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218 FUNDAMENTALS title will appear to emerge from cloudy water. This can also be done in a pond or pan if no stream is available. Animation for titles is performed in just the same way as the animation of cartoons and since that is described elsewhere only the mechanics of timing are mentioned. Timing is the greatest difficulty, but even so it need not present any complications if it is remembered that in one second twenty-four frames of film are seen on the screen. That means twenty-four different pictures or changes of scene per second, unless it is desired to make the motion very slow and smooth and use two frames for each change of position; then it will be twelve changes per second. The important thing is to plan the title in advance so that every movement is already known before the filming starts. It must be decided how long the title is to be on the screen; to this must be added the time required for the letters to take position. If the title has four words and twenty-five letters and is to be on the screen for six seconds, then six times twenty-four or one hundred forty-four frames will be exposed and up to that number of changes of position may be made. So when it is decided how many changes are required, it will be known how much work is involved. Under the heading of animation, map work should really be included since the use of maps for any purpose almost invariably entails a small amount of this type of work. Unless the map is to be only a static illustra- tion of where a place or thing is, it must have some life in it. This can be done in a number of ways. For motion along the line of travel, a map—choose a clean, uncluttered print of the map, for excessive detail will only destroy the value—is mounted on the animation table or even in the titler. A series of exposures of one frame is made; after each exposure the heavy line which travels along the route followed is extended a fraction and the next frame shot. Thus the line appears to extend itself automatically. Other refinements, such as name plates, etc., will suggest themselves. Finally, the creation of well-known real special effects will be described to close this chapter. The combination of this chapter and the chapter on editing and splicing should be sufficient to set